expressions: Dictionary Information

Expression n. 1 expressing or being expressed. 2 word or phrase expressed. 3 person-s facial appearance, indicating feeling. 4 conveying of feeling in music, speaking, dance, etc. 5 depiction of feeling etc. In art. 6 math. Collection of symbols expressing a quantity.  expressionless adj. [french: related to -express]

expressions: Geographic Locations

expressions: Historical Excerpts

Middle Eost HEBREW. Old Testament of the Bible, begun as early as lOtli century; one of great literary works of history; primarily religious, traces history of Hebrews from creation to rebuilding of Jerusalem after return from Babylonian exile; prophetic w’ritings advocate both religious and social reforms, emphasizing junice and righteousness as responsibility of the individual and the state. BABYLONIA. Epic of Gilgamesh, important relic of mesopotamian literature: exploits of legendary figure. Egypt Book of the Dead (Coming Forth [from Death] by Day), most significant of ancient Egyptian writings; predated Ist Dynasty; concerned with existence after deatlt; charms and formulas for attaining eternal life; prayers, hymns, and spells for the protection of the deceased. Abhnaton wrote hymns to Aton; outstanding expressions of monotheism. Epic poetry commemorated lives and military victories of great kings. Asia INDIA. Veda, most sacred scriptures of Hinduism, contain canonical books of Indo-Aiyan, later Hindu, religion; witten in Vedic, parent language of Sanskrit; consists of four collections (Samhitas); Rig-Veda, ancient hjTnns; Sama-Veda, stanzas from Vedic hjanns intended to be sung; YafurVeda, prayers and guide for priests; athanm-veda, spells and incantations; Brahmanas, prose commentary, accompanied eacli Veda; Aranyakas and later Upanishads, speculations and meditations of pious recluses, known as ‘forest literattire.’ CHINA. Chou period produced the Five Classics; Confucius (K ung Futse) credited with compilation and editing; I Ching (Book of Changes). Shu Ching (Boot of Documents or History). Sh»7i Ching (Book of Poeiry-), Li Chi (Recoiri of Rites) and Ch un Ch iu (Spring and Autumn.Annals)





Egypt Early or Old Kingdom. Step pyramids and series of maslabas (truncated pyramidal tomb forms) constructed. Pyramid Age. 4th dynasty, c2700c2560 (dates still uncertain) Tombs built at Gizeh; for pharaohs Khufu (Cheops), Khafre, and Menkaure; made possible by strong monarchical system, vast resources of stone and labor; majestic monuments; sculpture and relief carvings such as statue of Khafre, show same high level of achievement, preservation of traditions, great accuracy; beautifully made furniture, jewelry. Middle Kingdom, c2100-cl800. Tombs of kings and queens carved into hills facing Nile; important nobles built cliff tombs; painting used extensively, showing increasing freedom from conventionalization: fine examples of sculpture, portraits of Amenemhet III, Senusret III; rare naturalism, individualization; first use of obelisks. New Kingdom (or Empire). cl570cllOO. Famous for temple building, reflecting increased power of priests; temples of Amon, Karnak, Luxor, Horus at Edfu, magnificent examples of Empire style; plan consisted of sacred way flanked by sphinxes. Pylons (huge towerlike walls at entrance), courtyards, colonnaded areas, vast Hyposlyle (tall columns) halls, and sanctuary; windows used to fill space between two levels on early, fully developed clerestory. Temple of Hatshepsut. At Deir elBahri, part of cliff tombs in Valley of Kings, near Thebes; unique in many ways; severely simple, complete harmony of design and background; three colonnaded terraces outstanding. Sculpture. Stimulated probably by akhnaton’s religious revolt, sculpture became naturalistic in radical departure of brief duration: heads of Akhnaton and wife, Nefertiti, striking examples; relief sculpture showed freedom of expression; later work returned to traditional colossal, rigid statues of pharaohs.





Greece EARLY GREEK. 700-500 bc. Harsh and primitive art, with none of gaiety or animation of Cretan; pottery decorated with simple geometric forms; adopted Doric and Ionic styles in architecture; Doric column heavy, simple, austere, practical, with sharp, fluting; Ionic column slender, with flat fluting and volute capital; slight swelling toward middle, tapering off at top, giving effect of elasticity; c600 began to imitate simple wooden structures in stone; unique, built by human beings for human beings rather than colossal. Statue of a Youth. Signed by Polymedes, exemplifies revolution in art; search for new ways of representation in both sculpture and painting; rebellion against tradition, conventional tecliniques and styles; foreshortening, front view introduced. black-figured decorative vases gained in popularity c540. CRETE, Pre-Greek. Minoan Art. c2000-cl400. Secular, both in treatment and choice of subject, accounting for spirit of gaiety: absence of temples, tombs, death cult; no evidence of restrictions imposed by dominant priest class; naturalism, individuality, and freedom of expression reveal a society unrestrained by hieratical tradition; marine and floral motifs popular. Palace at Cnossus. Spacious, comfortable, lacking monumentality or grandeur of Egyptians: use of columns, tapered from capital to foot with no base, intended to give light and air. Painting. Animated, daring, colorful work seen in bull-leapers fresco at Cnossus; Boxer and Harvester Vases show freedom from convention and a vigorous style. Sculpture. Stone and metal; silver, gold, bronze, ivory works of great delicacy, using relief, inlay, and engraving. Pottery. Expertly made, utilitarian; variety and originality in decoration, glazes, patterns, and forms.





To primitive man music and dance, accompanied by the rhythmic beat of a drum, were important ports of religious expression. Later dvilizations added various instruments, developed professional musidaiis, usually following caste or class Unes, and. with the introduction of popular or folic songs, created a secular as well as a religious music. The Egyptians used the diatonic scale, the ffindus devised a melody pattern called a raga, and the CUnese scales were sets of altering major and minor semitones. Western music developed primarily from the psalms of the Hebrews and the hymns of the Greeks. Greek drama, which began with festivals in worship of the god Dionysus, was an inspired synthesis of poetry, music, and the dance.





The philosophy of the Greeks represented their love of wisdom, secrrdi for truth, concern for freedom of thought, and hiunomslic concept of man s individual worth. The Sophists introduced skepticism as opposed to dogmatism. Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates profoundly influenced subsequent thought. The odes of Pindar and poetic idyls of Theocritus were unmatched, and the histories of Herodotus and Thucydides were the mature expressions of Greek prose literature, Cicero and Caesar were masters of Latin prose; Vergil of Latin poetry. Two great epics^ the Hamayana and the mahabhaiata, which contained the bhagavad-gita, honored as the New Testament of Hinduism, were the outstanding works of early Hindu literature.





The art of the Age of Pericles, or the Classic Age, become a monument to the Greek spirit of independence, humanism, and idealism. The Parthenon in Athens, unmatched for clarity, simplicity, and proportion, epitomized the beauty and serenity of Greek architecture. The sculptvue of the Parthenon, designed by Phidias, represented the idealism of the Helleiuc period, while the Frieze of the Altar of Zeus in Pergamon reflected the heightened realism, individualism, and emotional intensity of hellenistic art. The art of India, though influenced by that of Greece and Persia, developed a unique qualify of expression manifested in intricately carved sculpture, cove-temples hewn from rock, and the stupas bmlt by Asoka in honor of Buddha.





Asia INDIA. Architecture. Use of stone for building and for sculpture began with Mauryan Dynasty; increased under Asoka, who as convert to Buddhism, erected monuments in honor of Buddha; lats (pillars) set up along Buddha s legendary route, highways; edicts inscribed on base (western style); pillars 40 to 50 feet high, single shafts of beautifully polished stone, great engineering feat; capitals had carved ornamentation, showing Persian and Greek influence; Lion capital, Sarnatli; bull column, Rampura; Asoka built tliousands of stupas (burial mounds or domes); shrines containing relics of Buddha or saints; only, core remains of great stupa at Sanclii. Sculpture. outstanding work of period seen in reliefs on rails and intricately carved gateways of stupas; illustrated legends of Buddha’s life; many freestanding statues; all work shows strong western influence, but with unique Indian quality of expression; rock-cut sanctuaries (chaityas) popular under Asoka; earliest monastic c.avcs, Barabar Hills, Nagarjuni; earliest chaitya-ha.ll, basilica-type catliedral, hewn from rock at Bhajja, 2d century: largest, most magnificent cave-temple, Karli, near Bombay, begun 1st century; frescoes decorated walls, Ajanta; extraordinary scenes from Jakata Talcs. CHINA. Sculpture. Found in tombs; fresh, often humorous; ricli imagery in animals. Excellent lacquer-ware; painting found in tombs; technique of calligraphy on silk developed.





Europe Christianity. One o£ the world’s great religions; based on life and teadiings of Jesus of Nazareth, teacher of Jews in time of diverse religious belief; emphasized love and brotherhood as basis of ethics and God s will,for all men; Jesus’ message: that the Kingdom of God was at hand, and that He was its herald; crucified; His death and resurrection became symbol of salvation for men who followed Him and accepted His divinity. Paul of Tarsus. Greatest of missionaries; began as vigorous anti-Christian: converted after visionary experience, 35; established Church distinct from Judaism; considered arcliitect of Christianity; established fundamental Christian rite. The Eucharist; helped secure admittance of Gentiles into Church; extraordinary influence; martyred. Christian Doctrine and Ritual. Basic ideas of Jewish tradition; adopted monotheism and Jesus as Messiah; Trinity of Father, Son, Holy Ghost, equal expressions of divine perfection; clergy successors to Apostles; salvation through Church; establishment of Baptism, Sunday as Sabbath, Friday as day of fasting and mortification. organization of the Church. Began tvith separation of baptized from catechumens (newcomers) ; Apostles constituted first clergy or governing officers; deacons and presbyters led growing number of congregations; presbyters, specially ordained, became priests; episcopi (bishops) in charge of one or more churches; pope, bishop of Rome, steward of Churdi. Edict of Milan. Issued by constantine, ended persecutions; excused Christians from worship of emperor, state gods; christianity tolerated. Council of Nicaea. Condemned Arian heresy; affirmed ’ divine nature of Christ; defined nature of Trinity. Gnostic Heresy. Belief that salvation attainable through knowledge rather than faitli, ritual; like Oriental cults, made distinction between Jesus, God, and divine spirit: condemned by Church for placing Christian God beneath another spiritual being and ■ emphasis on asceticism, mysticihn.





Asia INDIA. mahayana-buddhism gained in popularity: changed doctrine of historical Buddha; took over many practices of Hinduism; readied full development in northeast India; spread to Tibet, China; sacred writing, Sanskrit: best-known work, saddharmapundarika (The Lotus of Good Doctrine) Hinduism gradually adopted Buddhist use of images, worship of divinities; Buddha and Vishnu became interchangeable; Hinduism gained support of Guptas, 4tli and 5th centuries; complete religious toleration and freedom of discussion permitted; encouraged all distinctly Indian expressions of their culture; study of ancient Vedas; strengthened both Hinduism, India. CHINA. Buddhism spread rapidly following collapse of Han Dynasty; brought by mercliants, missionaries, scholars; Chinese scholars visited Indian temples and monasteries; collected texts; by 5th century, Buddhists comprised nine-tenths of population in some areas; Taoism readied peak; ‘The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove,’ Taoist scholars, dramatically ridiculed formalism of Confucianism; adopted Buddhist ideas; established monasteries, though did not practice celibacy and admitted women. Middle East PERSIA. Manichaeism. Religion of salvation developed from zoroastrianism by Mani; influenced by Indian, hellenistic ideas, particularly Gnosticism; founded tvell-organized sect; divided followers into two classes: elect and hearers (laymen); missionaries spread faith; large following in 4tli century; helped strengthen ascetic elements of Christianity. Europe Christianity. Arians first successful missionaries; Ulfilas translated Bible into German, 340, earliest work in language: Franks, first large Germanic group, converted; St. Patrick converted Irish, 440; missionairies in Britain.





Asia CHINA. Li Po (Tai Po or Tai Pell) Great T’ang poet; one of ‘Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup’; prolific; contemplative, imaginative, subtle, delicate, often gay expression of love of nature, wine, and romance. Tu Fu. illustrious poet; considered y some authorities superior to Li; wrote with deep insight into suffering ind tragedy; embittered life; sympathy vith peasant; delight in nature. Po Chii-i. Famed poet; prolific; most poetry short, easily understood; known for The everlasting Wrong, 806. Han Yu (Wen-keng) Essayist, poet, philosopher, statesman; famed for prose style and creation of an essay form; light, witty poetry. To Yu compiled first historical encyclopedia, T’nng Tien. We! Pao prepared on command from the Emperor, official version of Canon of History; coordinated diverse manuscripts. Liu Tsung<yuan. Prose writer, poet, calligrapher; excellent political satire; Confucian with interest in Buddhism. INDIA. Bana. Foremost Gadyakavi (prose poet) of classical Sanskrit literature; suryasataka, verses on sun; Kadambari and Harscarita, powerful vigorous descriptive quality; set style. Dandin. Major poet, prose writer; poems Kavyadarsa, Dandi-divisandhana; dasakumaracarita (Tale of the Ten Princes) long biographical prose tales; master of double entendre. Subandhu. Prose writer; imitated Bana; Vasavadatta;, master of language; scant subject matter; known for puns. Bhartrhari. c7th century. singlestanza poems, masterpieces of conciseness. Manikha Vasagar. 10 th century. Important sectarian poet; tiruvasakam (Sacred Utterance); hymns in honor of Siva. Nammalvar (Satakopa) clOth century. outstanding Tamil poet; alwar (pious scholar), led group of poets; dedicated works to God Narayana, Sri Krishna. ltebes~tbiiowea : ~aiiLL-i ii -a.ju





Kasika. 7th century. Earliest extant commentary on the ashthadhyayi (Sanskrit grammar of 600 nc); established important new rules. JAPAN. Poetry developed as distinctive Japanese art during Nara and Heian periods; no longer dependent on Chinese models; honored court pastime; tanka vcr.se combination of five and seven syllable phrases; brief, cryptic; primarily expression of emotion. Manyoshu (collection of Myriad Leaves); oldest, considered greatest, anthology of Japanese poetry; <150 poets contributed verses; work of Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, Yamabe no Akahito, major poets of Nara period, included. Kokinshu (Poems Ancient and Modern) anthology published 922; poetry of Heian period compiled by Tsurayuki. Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters), prose; early traditions, myths. Nihonshoki (chronicles of Japan), historical, objective; valuable source. Tale of Genji. masterpiece by Lady Murasaki Shikibu; first realistic novel in Japanese literature; romantic, delicate, flowing style; Buddhist emphasis on transitory nature of life. Sei Shonagon. outstanding woman author of Pillow Sketches, essays, court life. Middle East PERSIA. Firdausi (Abu al-Qasim Hasan) Great epic poet; Shahnama (Book of Kings) legends and history, 60,000 verses recited by countrymen; Yusuf and Zulaykha, romance in rhymed couplets; first great figure in Persian literature. Rudagi of Khurasan. Poet; wrote court panegyrics; earliest notable poet; expressed conflict between worldly pleasures and spiritual values. Mu’allaquat. Celebrated, anthology of pre-islamic poetry, edited by Shapur; odes picturing Bedouin life. Arabic Literature. al-mutanabbi, Ahmad. Popular poet of classical Arabic. al-Daqiqi, Abu Mansur. Poet; 1,000 couplets in praise of wine, love.





Asia CHINA. Cave paintings of Tunluang glorified Buddha, provided magnificent record of Chinese art from last quarter of 5th century to first half of 8th; little other contemporary painting survived; scroll-like compositions, decorative, high level of ichievement in art of illustration; superb frescoes. Wu Tao-tse (tao-hsiian) Greatest T’ang painter; unsurpassed in Buddhist historical and portrait painting: most important work more than 300 frescoes on walls of temples and palaces of Ch ang-an, Loyang: changed whole conception of landscape painting with use of free bold strokes; monochromes. Yen Li-pen. Celebrated early T’ang artist; credited with painting famous silk scroll Portraits of the Emperors. Li Ssu-hsiin. Noted landscape artist; regarded finest colorist of period; precise, car-eful handling; realism; use of brilliant blues and greens. Wang Wei. Founder of Southern school of landscape painting: first artist to vary from tradition; expressionist; superior monochrome landscape painting. Huang Ch iian. Leader of Szechuan group; flower and bird painters; originated ‘boneless method’ of painting, use of color without outlining beforehand; influenced Sung painters. Han Kan. Famous painter of horses. Tung Yuan. Artist of Five Dynasty period; celebrated for ability to create atmosphere and limitless space; Clear Weather in the Valley, well-known work. Li Ch eng. d. 967. Perfected Southern school of landscape; bold, free style: Angling from Skiff amid Snowy Trees. Chu-ian. Monk painter; distinctive landscape style of Southern school; strong contrasts, rich, vigorous effects; excellent, precise teclrnique; known also for official murals. Chang Hsuan. fl. 713-42. Court painter; famed for Silk Beaters; skillful grouping of figures; grandeur of. style. i iebcs foilowed: ana in aao uit-vic





INDIA. Architecture. Buddhist influence waned and Hindu and Jain revived; Hindu temple an object of worship rather than a place of worship; use of corbelled arch, featured gopurams (gateways), choultries (ceremonial halls) with ornately decorated thousand columns; northern IndoAryan style dominated period; shrines known for sikhara (towers) rounded at top, curvilinear outline, decorated with sculptured reliefs; Dravidian or southern style, usually in shape of truncated pyramid; outstanding example, magnificent Brahman temple of Kailasha at Ellora, free standing, hewn and carved from single mass of rock; shore temple of mamallapuram, carved rathas (pagodas) of unusual beauty. Sculpture. Descent of Ganges, supreme achievement, rock sculpture cut 80 feet long, 30 feet high; free-standing sculpture including eight-armed Sivas, Kailasa Temple, Trimurti (three-headed) Siva, Elephanta Island near Bombay, stone deer at mamallapuram, beautiful examples of plastic expression of Hindu concept of divinity. Cambodia. Period 800-1000 marked merger of Khmer style based on both Chinese and Indian works; capital built late 9th century, Angkor Thom; center, true temple-mountain, pyramidal structure, stairways oh four sides, lion-guarded. JAPAN. Sculpture. Among artists imported by Asuka rulers was Tori ■ Busshi, famed sculptor, cast principal bronzes -in Golden Hall at Horyuji, established Buddhist style from Northern Wei Dynasty of China; Toris technique one of many popular styles; work with clay, bronze, wood, drylacquer; kanshitsu (lacquer-and-cloth) technique introduced about 665, great Buddhas erected, enormous Todaiji or Daihatsu at Nara; sculpture of 9th century mostly of wood; soft, sensuous, ample figures, solemn dignity.





Islam Mu tazilites (Shi’ite Sect) fl. 10th, 11 til centuries; rationalistic school of Islamic thought in theological disputes of period; emphasized free will, opposed divine predestination; known as believers in the ‘created Koran.’ al-Ghazali, Mohammed. Arabian philosopher, theologian of Khurasan; professor, director, college of Baghdad; opponent of rationalism; Sufi mystic, defender of Moslem orthodoxy against aristotelian thinkers; The destruction of the philosophers, The restoration of the Sciences of Religion, principal works; disputed by Averroes. Asia JAPAN. Eisai, Myoan. Founder, Rinzai branch of Zen Buddhist sect; popular with Kamakura rulers, ivarriors. Genku (Honen Shonen). Founded Jddo-shii (Pure Land) Sect of Amida Buddhism. Shinran (Shonen). Disciple of Genku, founded jodo-shhishu (True Pure Land) sect; entry into paradise based on faith alone; ethical conduct required as expression, reward of faith; most popular Buddhist sect in Japan. INDIA. Mahmud of Ghazni plundered India; ardent Moslem; destroyed temple of Shiva, Somnath 1024-26. EDUCATION Islam Nizam al-MuIk, vizier to Malik Shah, 1073-92, able administrator; founded colleges, Baghdad (Nizamiya), other large cities. Asia INDIA. Bhoja. King of central India; scholar; founded Sanskrit College, Dhar. University of Nalanda, foremost Indian university; varied faculties; libraries, lecture rooms; destroyed by Mongols.





The building of the great Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals, remarkable achievement of the medieval period, reflected the profound religious faith of the age. Romanesque cnt developed under feudalism, and Gothic art, particularly in France, was the result oI combined creative efforts of entire town communities. The magnificent stained glass windows of the Gothic cathedral replaced the huge ceiling frescoes of Romanesque church buildings. The noted Sung calligraphers of China, emphasizing creative imagination and spontaneous expression, founded the wen-jen movement. The famed Choju Gigo (Scroll of Animals ), painted by Tobo Sojo, established the art of caricature in Japan.





M U SIC Europe Church Music. Early polyphonic Gothic music saw the introduction of the discant (discantus, descant); addition of voices at different intervals singing against the established melody; motet, outstanding form of period, in two or three parts, each with an independent text, melody; improvement in notation. Guido d Arezzo (Aretinus) Italian benedictine monk; created foundation of modern system of musical notation; established four-line staff, using both lines and spaces; gave definite position to each scale degree; invented set of syllables to denote individual tones of scale; gave names to the six tones of the hexachord; credited with Guidonian hand, chart devised to make it easier to teach sight-reading; Micrologus (cl 025) principal source of early polyphonic music. Perotin (Perotinus Magnus) French clioirmaster, Notre Dame Cathedral; improved notation; developed motet. Leonin (Leoninus) 12th century French organist; choirmaster; one of first to mark time values in music. Cotton, John. llth-12th centuries. English author of important treatise on music; first to make use of con. trary motion. Hermannus Contractus. 1013-54. German musical theorist, composer; two vital treatises; one on Greek modes, other on notation; wrote hymns. Laudi. Popular religious songs of • Italy, composed by Franciscan monks; warm, sincere expressions of piety, devotion. Secular Music. Developed during this great period of the troubadours of southern France; lyrical poets, usuaWy noblemen, amateurs; combined poetry and music; invented new melodies, rhythms, forms to fit their verses of courtly love; trouveres, troubadours of northern France; borrowed melody from the rich, informal music of the, people; names of 460 troubadours and 200 trouyferes are known; troubadours:





Europe ITALY. Giotfo di Bondone. Great Florentine master whose work, far in advance of contemporaries, forcshad3wed the Renaissance; painter, architect, sculptor; pupil of Cimabue; famous for frescoes of St. Francis at Assisi and for design of campanile and face of Duomo in Florence; work introduced naturalism and individuality. Cimabue, Giovanni (Cenni di Pepo). Florentine painter, mosaicist; ivork transition from fonnalized Byzantine style to freer expression of Giotto and followers; introduced natural treatment of heads and faces. Pisano, Nicola. Considered first great Italian sculptor to combine Gothic and classic forms; famed architect; marble pulpit for baptistery in Pisa first great rvork; designed Perugian fountain. Pisano, Giovanni. Sculptor; worked with father, Nicola; masterpiece, pulpit for saint’andrea, Pistoia, 12981301; architect, Pisa. Duccio di Buoninsegna. Leading representative of Sienese school; work outstanding example of italo-byzantine art; known especially for altarpiece, Cathedral of Siena, 1308-11. Pisano, Andrea. Sculptor; succeeded Giotto as chief artist for cathedral of Florence; known especially for bronze doors of baptistery. Martini, Simone. A leading representative of Sienese school; worked at papal court at Avignon. Cavallini, Pietro. cl250-1330. Painter, sculptor, mosaicist; influence on Cimabue and Giotto of prime importance. Tino di Camaino. Sculptor; brought to sculpture austere humanism; first time European monumental sculpture of human figure done in the round and not as relief subordinate to architectural background., Gaddi, Taddio..cl300-c66. Painter, architect; talented pupil and assistant to Giotto; became leading Florentine artist after Giotto s death.





PAINTING Western Europe ITALY. michelangelo Buonarroti. Florentine genius whose magnificent sculpture and paintings inspired and had profound influence on all artists of later periods; studied with ghirlandaio and influenced by Donatello; famous for statues, David, Moses, figures at tomb of Pope Julius II, extraordinary paintings on ceiling of Sistine Chapel; versatility also seen in architecture, poetry. Titian (Vecellio Tiziano) Great master; represented development of dramatic monumentality characteristic of high renaissance composition, expressed with intensity and strength of color; portraits not only bore strong resemblance to sitter, but gave subject unique vitality and individuality. Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio) scholarartist, one of finest masters of period; work in Florence showed new freedom of expression; known for Madonnas; important work at Vatican, including large murals; classical themes; versatile, succeeded Bramante as chief arcliitect, St. Peter’s. Giorgione (Giorgio barbarelli) Venetian artist; studied with Bellini; innovator in use of color, landscape, and free expression. Correggio (Antonio Allegri) Famous for lyrical frescoes; influence on art of 16th and 17th centuries in Italy almost as great as Michelangelo’s. Clovio, Giorgio. 1498-1578. Regarded as one of greatest miniaturists and illuminators; master technician and colorist; masterpiece. Book of the Hours of the Blessed Virgin. Sebastiano del Piombo (sebastiano Luclani). cl485-1547. Venetian artist: noted frescoes, excellent portraits. Signorelli, Luca. cl441-1523. Umbrian; studied with della Francesca; introduced powerful treatment of anatomy: influenced Michelangelo. Raimondi, marcantonio, cl4801527/34. Master engraver. SPAIN. Berniguete, Alonso. cl4861561. Sculptor, painter of religious works.





Josmiln des Pres, giealesl composer ol the early 16th century, blended the contrapuntal comtmclions and canonic iiaitaUons of the Flemish school -with the expressive lyricism of Ihe ilblions and produced magnificently balanced compositions. Adrien Willaert, founder ol the VeneUan school, created music with the same freedom of expression and love of color seen in the great Venetian art of the period. Willaert introduced a^ new hannonic stylo to the 16th century madrigal, grandiose motets for antiphonal choirs (polychoral style), and independent instrumental music, lope de Rueda created the national theater ol Spain, and Lodovico Ariosto wrote the first true modem comedy. The Casket, 1508.





Western Europe ITALY. Titian. The third phase in the long life of this genius occurred in this period; started cycle of mythological paintings for Philip II, 1553; late works showed intensification of emotional expression and luminosity of color; last work, magnificent Pieid. Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti) Great master; inspired by michelangelo and Titian, but developed highly individual style; contributed important innovations; for special effect, used strong diagonals; chiaroscuro emphasized different values; painted great cycle for Scuola d^ San Rocco, 156487; Crucifixion^ 1565. Veronese, Paolo (Caliari) Venetian Baroque master; influenced by Mantegna; noted for religious feast scenes in characteristically secular and decorative manner, emphasizing splendor, opulence, exaggerated special effects. Palladio, Andrea. Architect; classic, grandiose style; later imitated by Inigo Jones and imported into England in 17th century; influenced Georgian architecture; known for work, I quattro libri dell’ architectura, 1570 (Four Books of architecture, English ed., 1713). Bronzino, II (Agnolo di Cosimo Allori) 1502-72. Mannerist Florentine portrait artist; first to emphasize sitter’s surroundings and varied interests. Caracci, Lodovico. 1555-1619. Founder, Bolognese eclectic school; pupil of Tintoretto; fine teacher. Fonfana, Domenico. 1543-1607. Architect; built Sistine Chapel in Church of Santa Maria Maggiore, cl 580; played leading part in great rebuilding of Rome -under Sixtus V; erected obelisk, front of St. Peter’s. Bassano, Jacopo. 1510-92. Venetian; probably first artist in Italy to paint ‘genre’ pictures; influenced by Tintoretto who gave contemporary atmosphere to religious and mythological painting.









THEATER Europe ENGLAND. shakespeare, William. Greatest dramatist of kVestem world; period of sonnets, 1593-96; lyrical period of best comedies, including A Comedy of Errors, 1591-92, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 1595, Taming of the Shrew, 1596; greater influence on future dramatists than any other writer. Marlowe, Christopher. elizabethan dramatist, second only to Shakespc.are; established blank verse as appropriate means of expression; Dr. Faustus, tamburlaine, The Jew of Malta. Lyly, John. 1553-1606. Introduced high comedy to England, made prose its vehicle; classical dramas were link between Italian renaissance and elizabethan dramatists. Kyd, Thomas. 1558-94. Dramatist; known as exponent of tragedy of blood’; Spanish Tragedy, 1592, may have been source of ghost and playwithin-a-play of shakespeare s Hamlet. Sackville, Thomas. 1536-1608. kVrotC earliest English tragedy in blank verse. Globe Theater opened, 1599. FRANCE. Cornier, Robert. 15451601. outstanding writer of verse tragedies; Bradamante, 1582, Les Juives, 1583, masterpieces. Jodelle, felienne. 1532-73. Poet of Pleiade; wrote first modern French tragedy, Cleopdtre captive, 1553; first regular comedy, Eugene; introduced alexandrine into French theater. Larivey, Pierre de. 1540-1611. Innovator in adapting Italian originals for French stage; wrote comedies. GERMANY. Sachs, Hans. Mcistcrsinger; wrote 20S plays; scail.ir comedies important development in theater. ITALY. Tosso, Torquato. 1544-95. Author of pastoral Aminta, 1573. SPAIN. Cueva, Juon de la. cl550cl610. Forerunner of Lope de Vega; Los sicte infantes de Lara, 1379, famous play. PORTUGAL Ferreira, Antonio cl52S-69. Dramatist, jxjet; Ines de Castro, J05





1645. Also known as Miyamoto Mushashi; a samurai whose skill as a srvordsman was legendary; remarkably talented suiboku artist; brushwork srvift and terse, like srvordsman’s. Matabei, Iwasa. Gained fame as forerunner of style termed ukiyo-e, type of genre picture portraying realistic scenes of contemporary life, m fluenced later print-makers. CHINA. Tung Ch i-Ch ang. Most gifted landscape artist of Ming Dyna^ ty; controversial figure whose se expression freed artists frorh academic restrictions; important influence. Li Liu-fang. 1575-1629. Notable small album pictures, pure examples nf fhrmp-ht \>rntins’‘(hsteh i) revea mg,^





Moronobu, outstanding Japanese artist, pioneered in the art of uJciyo-e printmaking, one of the greatest expressions of popular art of the people to be found anywhere/ The elegant age of Louis XIV in France produced the elaborate Baroque architecture and decorations of the Palace of Versailles, the Gobelin tapestries, and the gardens of the Tuileries. The restoration Period in England was reflected in the limited Baroque architecture of Sir christopher Wren. The contrast between the restless, searching introspection of Rembrandt and the cool, intellectual objectivity of Vermeer in Holland was paralleled in Spain by El Greco and Velasquez. The Dutch landscape artists and genre painters, like the Japanese, represented the interests of the middle class.





The spirit of free sdenlific inquiry, belief in progress, and a fedth in man s ability to reason individually and collectively placed emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge and resulted in an encyclopedic movement represented in France by Diderot, by Johnson in England, and in China by the issuance of a catalogue of the Imperial Library by the emperor, Ch ien Lung. Confidence in man s ability to control his own destiny was evidenced in the outstanding social, political, and economic theories expounded. philosophical ideas in Europe ranged from the rationalism of Voltaire to the transcendentalism of Kant In China, Yiian Mei also stressed the importance of the individual and the need for freedom of expression without dependence on authority.





The romantic movement was a reaction against the rationalism oi the 18th century disappointment over the failure of the French Revolution and patriotic revolt against Napoleon resulted in a fervent nationalism. This was reflected in the ideas of Hegel, most influential philosopher of the period, whose concept of the World Spirit stimulated historical thought and growth of nationalism. romanticism in literature, having started in Germony with the work of Goethe and Schiller, spread to England -where the poetry of Coleridge, Words, worth, Byron, Shelley, and Keats and the novels of Scott were expressions of the romantic ideal. chateaubriand and Germcrine de Slael attempted to introduce romanlidsm into France, but were unsuccessful until napoleon’s fall from power.





ENGLAND. Turner, Joseph. Great Romantic artist; outstanding seascapes; painting of Calais Pier, 1802, established fame; toward end of life, attempted to create atmosphere by experimenting with light and space; last period showed stronger color, freer and more personal expression; nature reflected emotion; watercolors, etchings. Constable, John. distinguished landscape artist; spans periods; concerned with truth of vision; one of first to paint from nature; Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop s Garden, 1826, considered masterpiece; acclaimed in Paris, 1824; influenced Delacroix. Barry, Sir Charles. 1795-1860. Architect; leader in use of Gothic style; known for westminster Palace (Houses of parliament) London, 1840-60, Pugin, Augustus. Architect, writer; important influence in Gothic Revival with The True Principles of Pointed or Christian architecture, 1841; worked under Sir Charles Barry on Houses of Parliament. Central Europe GERMANY. Rauch, Christian. Sculptor; influenced by Thorvaldsen; renowned for portraits, monuments; equestrian statue of Frederick the Great, portrait bust of Albrecht Diirer, masterpieces. Menzel, Adolph. Foremost lithographer; illustrator, painter; best known for 400 designs for wood blocks that illustrate Kugler’s History of Frederick the Great, 1840; amazing master of detail; illustrated works by Frederick the Great, Goethe, and Kleist; self-taught genre and historical painter; important as early example of modern approach to light and motion, eliminating anecdotal details; studies of industrial factories; pen and ink drawings.





THEATER Europe GERMANY. Hebbel, Christian Friedrich. Dramatic poet; considered most powerful tragic dramatist of period; linked last of romanticism widi new realism; interested in psycliological problems; Agnes Bernauer, 1852, expressed reaction to revolution of 1848. tiiough set in Middle Ages; Gyges und sein Ring, 1856, considered poetic masterpiece. RUSSIA. Ostrovski, Aleksandr. Dramatist; tragedies, comedies based on lives of petty official class; Snow Maiden, 1873, used by rimsky-korsakoff as libretto for opera; important influence particularly on Chekov. Turgenev, Ivan. 1818-83. Famed literary figure; principal play, A Month in the Country, 1850; A Provincial Lady, 1851. Pisemsky, Aleksey. 1820-81. Novelist, dramatist: realism; expression of sympathy for peasant: A Bitter Fate, I860. FRANCE. Dumas, Alexandre (fils). Creator of modern comedy of manners, Le Demi-Monde, 1855; his first play. La Dame aux Camelias (Camille), was written as a novel, 1848, a play 1849, produced in 1852, it created a sensation. Avfgier, Emile. 1820-89. Dramatist, satirist: pioneer in modem realism; portrayed social foibles of time from strongly etliical viewpoint. ITALY. Cossa, Piefro. 1830-81. Leading dramatist of transition from romanticism to naturalism or realism in Italy: historical themes. HUNGARY. SzigligeJi, Ede. 181478. playsvright whose work was based on native folk tales; ver) popular. United States Aiken, George. 1830-76. playavright, Actor; Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 1852, had unusual run of 300 performances. Asia JAPAN. Mokuami, Kawafake. Noted Kabuki playtvright of sewamono (lives of common people) plays; extremely.versatnc:

author, of.at -least 50 nlavs.





By the end of the 19th century, the invention of the camera and the scientific discoveries involving the nature of light inspired artists to explore new techniques and means of expression. Cezanne, great master of post-impressionism and forerunner of Cubism and abstract form, became the founder of modem art. Monet, technical innovator of the impressionists, painted landscapes under different conditions of light. Seurat created pointillism Gauguin and van Gogh pioneered Expressionism. Degas and toulouse-lautrec worked as Linear Impressionists. Rodin, outstanding sculptor of the century, developed Expressive Realism. Whistler. Sargent, Eakins, and Ryder represented the various forms of expression adopted by the American artists.





Renoir, Pierre Auguste. Leading Impressionist; figure compositions and study of the nude; warm, brilliant color; Moulin de la Galette, Mme. charpentier and Her Children, by the Seashore, La Toilette. toulouse-lautrec, Henri de. Linear Impressionist; outstanding lithographer; influenced by Degas and Japanese; excellent color posters; exceptional draughtsman; unusual subject matter, studies of circus, dance halls, singers, prostitutes, horses; influential. Redon, Odilon. 1840-1916. Painter, lithographer; unusual mystical quality; dramatic use of black; delicate flowers. Pissarro, Camille. 1830-1903. Landscape artist; Impressionist; sincere, influenced and helped young artists. Signac, Paul. 1863-1935. Post-Impressionist; worked with Seurat; Pointillist; street scenes, seascapes. Rousseau, Henri. 1844-1910. Primitive; exotic color in themes of fantasy; The Sleeping Gypsy, 1897. Sisley, Alfred. 1839-99. Impressionist; charming landscapes. Others. James Ensor 1860-1949, Belgian Post-Impressionist; Pierre Bonnard (1867-1947), brilliant member of Nabis Group. ENGLAND. burne-jones, Sir Edward. pre-raphaelite painter, though subject matter differed; follower of Rossetti; painter of dreams in romantic style. Central and Eastern Europe NETHERLANDS. Van Gogh, Vincent. Pioneer Expressionist; brilliant color; dynamic, almost frenzied, quality in heavily painted works; concerned with oppressed peoples and nature; personal, highly emotional expression; tragic life; unappreciated during short life, respected today; Sunflowers, Starry Night, self-portraits. SWITZERLAND-GERMANY. Bocklin, Arnold. Leader, Romantic School of Germany; atmospheric landscapes, often with element of fantasy; classical style; The Island of the Dead, 1880. RUSSIA. Antokolski, Markus. 1843





The Age of Science ond Technology was reflected in several of the revolutionary schools of early 20lh century art. In Germany expressionism was introduced by the Blue Bider Group (Kandinsky. Marc); Abstract Art, Bauhaus (Gropius.. Klee, Moholy-Nagy); in France by Cubism (Picasso. Braque), Fauvism (Matisse, Derain, Vlaminck), Dadcdsih (Picabia, Duchamp);, in Italy by Futurism (Severini, Balia); in Holland by De StijI (Neoplastidsm: Mondrian, Van Doesburg); in Russia by suprematists (Malevich). Kandinsky by creaUng improvisations of pure line, color, and form and abandoning recognisable subject matter, became the innovator of pure Abstract Art. In the United States the Armory Show of -1913, led by, Davies, Pach, and Kuhn, introduced modern art, of Europe to America. ^





Central ond Eosiern Europe GERMANY. Kandinsky, Vasily. Great Russian abstract artist; worked in Germany and Paris; helped initiate German Expressionism; outstanding teacher at the Bauhaus; believed that art should reflect the abstract quality of absolute music; painted numbered, untitled improvisations, Compositions; author of influential The Art of Spiritual Harmony, 1910. Klee, Paul. Swiss artist; nonrepresentational abstract expression of nature, human values; subtle color; notable pen and ink drawings, water colors; stressed importance of creating with ‘innocent eye of a child.’ Gropius, Walter. Architect, artist; founder, designer of Bauhaus; creator of ‘functionalism’; highly influential. Nolde, Emil. 1867-1956. Expressionist: leader Die Brilcke^ (Bridge) group: interpreted folk tradition in terms of modern, individual expression. Marc, Franz. 1880-1916. Founder, with Kandinsky, Blaue Reiter (Blue Rider); colorful animal studies. Lehmbruck, Wilhelm. 1881-1919. expressionist sculptor, known for elongated figures. Grosz, George. 1893GermanAmerican artist; famed satirical pen and ink drawings of postwar Germany, in tradition of Goya and Daumier, NETHERLANDS. Mondrian, Piet. Leader of geometrical abstraction known as Neoplasticism; led group called De Stijl (Style) with Van Doesburg; influenced Bauhaus and international style of architecture, industrial design. Oud, Jacobus J. P. 1890Architect; De Stijl group. NORWAY. Munch, Edvard. Leading early Expressionist; powerful graphics. AUSTRIA. Kokoschka, Oscar,1886-. Expressionist; portraits, landscapes. RUSSIA. Chagall, Marc. 1887‘ : Expressionist: precursor. Surrealism; Paris school; fantasy; brilliant color. Malevich, Kasimir. 1878-1935. Suprematist; geometrical abstraction. ROMANIA. Brancusi, Constantin. 1876-1957. Abstract sculptor; Paris,,. :chnol..ij.,,.:,





United States Wright, Frank Lloyd. Great American architect; first to use open planning in houses, breaking from closed volume: flexible floor -plan with advancing, receding areas; important world influence, particularly with philosophy of architecture, many innovations; probably, most important contribution United States has made to world art. prendergast, Maurice. Landscape artist; impressionist; famed water colors; member, ‘The Eight’ or.‘Ashcan School’; group exhibited, 1908. Henri, Robert. Leader of ‘The Eight’; most important as teadier; emphasized technique not enough. Bellows, George. Member ‘Asiican School’; lithographer; strong works, interest in movement. Other members of ‘The Eight’; John Sloan, George Luks, William Glackens, Arthur Davies, Everett, Shinn, Reginald Marsh., Weber, Max. Versatile artist; studied in Paris; influenced by Cubists, expressionism; The Geranium, lOlh New York at Night, noted work. Marin, John. Famous waterrcolor artist; early work reflects Paris influence; Lower Manhattan, 1922. Feininger, Lybnel. Artist, illustrator; studied in Europe; taught at Bauhaus; semi-abstract, subtle color and design. Others: Joseph Stella, Italian futurist who worked in New York; Marsden Hartley, Man Ray, Walter Pach, Mor, ton Schamberg, Charles Sheeler, Alfred Maurer, Bernard Karfiol,, Maurice Sterne, Charles Demuth, Morgan Russell, Stanton Macdonald-Wright.. Asia JAPAN. Takeuchi Seiho. Attempted to introduce modern technique to Japanese painting; excellent sumi-fp (ink picture or ink monochrome), used fresh sense of color along light, delicate line. \, Yamamoto Kanae. Pioneer in new. movement of creative print-maker, , with Hakutei Ishii and others, pu lished magazine Hosuh, 1907;, ■WU’, in Europe; organizer hanga artists. ■





The new Age of experimentation in music saw the impressionism of the late 19th century artist and the poetry of the symbolists transferred info musical terms by Debussy. Honegger member of Les Six. experimented with polytonalify. and in Hungary the expressionist Bartok created an original dissonant harmony and structure. Diaghilev s great Russian Ballet group, with Nijinsky, Pavlova, Massine, and Lifar, performed in Paris Cbom 1909) to music by Debussy. Stravinsky. Havel, Falla, Prokofiev, and Milhaud, with sets designed and painted by Bakst, Benois, and Picasso. Shaw, incisive sodal satirist of the British theater, Chekhov in Russia, and Pirandello in Italy, made invaluable contributions.





Centrol and Eastern Europe RUSSIA. Stravinsky, Igor. Foremost modern composer of symphonic poems, orchestral, chamber music, works for ballet; Le Sacre du Printemps (Rites of Spring) 1913, L’Oiseau de Feu (Firebird) 1910, Petrouchka, 1911. Scriabin, Alexander. 1872-1915. Pianist, composer; mystic impressionist; introduced chords (‘mystic chord’) built in fourths instead of conventional major and minor triads in piano compositions. AUSTRIA. Schonberg, Arnold. 18741951. Composer; innovator; reduced instrumentation, increased use of counterpoint and classical devices of form accompanied development of atonality; famed for 12-tone technique first used in Serenade, 1924. Mahler, Gustav. 1860-1911. Conductor, composer; nine symphonies, with vocal parts. Berg, Alban. 1885-1936. Used 12tone technique of Schonberg; orchestral, chamber music; operas include Wo 2 zeck, 1914-20. HUNGARY. Bart6k, Bela. 1881-1945. Expressionist; instrumental works. Dohnanyi, Ernst von. 1877Expressionist; pianist; composer. United States LoefRer, Charles. Composer, violinist; born, studied in Europe; influenced by impressionists: Canticle of the Sun, for solo voice, orchestra used Gregorian chant, Ives, Charles. 1874





The work of the greatest artist of the 20th century. Picasso, evidenced the many changes in experimental style the artists made in a constant search for a new visual language. Cubism developed into geometric abstraction, nonobjective painting, and constructivist sculpture. With an increased interest in Freud, psychology, and the subconscious, dadaism grew into surrealism. expressionism became assodationism then abstrad expressionism. Modem Art, therefore, is not new but a development through the centuries of the artist s reaction to his environment and a constant reappraisal and use of the past in terms of the present. The artist of this century has tried to interpret experiences, feelings, emotional response, and mood rather than to portray reality.





Western Europe FRANCE. Picasso, Pablo. Following he period of synthetic, analytical, and ococo cubism, Picasso created groesque post-cubist ‘metamorphic’ drawngs, sculpture, and paintings; abstract culptural-form ‘bone’ pictures; surrealist abstractions; ‘stained glass’ still ife studies in brilliant color; series of ‘simultaneously clothed, nude, and i-rayed’ works. Girl Before a Mirror, i932; etchings, minotauromachy, 1935; ocial protest, Guernica, 1937; ‘doublefaced’ portraits, simultaneous vision, 1938^4; ceramics; sculpture. Matisse, Henri. Decorative expressionist; outstanding fauvist; brilliant color, flat-surface technique, master of nude, portraits, pen and ink drawings, sculpture, lithographs. Rouault, Georges. Religious artist; expressionist; vivid color in black outline; clowns, human suffering; famed lithographs. Miserere, Guerre. Others. Ozenfant, founder of Purism; Soutine, Dufy, Tanguy, Masson, Villon, Desnoyer, Soulages, Bazaine, Lurcat, Buffet, Gromaire, Pignon, Balthus, etc. SPAIN. Miro, Joan. distinctive style combining surrealism and linear abstraction; Dutch Interior, 1928. Dali, Salvador. 1904





Surrealist; The persistence of Memory, 1931. ENGLAND. Sutherland, Graham. 1903Outstanding British abstract expressionist; influenced by Blake, Picasso. Nicholson, Ben. 1894Noted artist; work subdued combination of abstract cubism and geometric constructivism. Hayter, Stanley. 1901Outstanding graphic artist; famous as teaclier. PORTUGAL. Vieira da Silva, Maria :lena. 1908Major woman artist; mental landscapes’; abstract expression with geometric overtones. Central Eur op e GERMANY. Ernst, Max. A founder of surrealism; major work. School of Paris. Hartung, Hans, 1904. Abstract expressionist; works in Paris.





48. Abstract expressionist; fused free-flo%ving forms with veiled symbols; emotion produced by brilliant color, line, form. Pereira, I. Rice. 1907Outstanding woman artist; geometric construction applied to painting; problems of light, space, fourth dimension; elaborate private symbolism; exquisite balance. Hartley, Marsden. 1878-1943. Expressionist; colorful Americana themes. Disney, Walt. 1901Creator of American animated film cartoons of world renown. Others. Hans Hofmann, very influential teacher; moholy-nagy established ‘bauhaus’ in Chicago. MEXICO. Rivera, Diego. Powerful murals portraying peasants, labor, poverty. Orozco, Jose C. Brilliant social satire monumental color, form; murals. Siqueiros, David A. 1898Dynamic, powerful social protest; Echo of a Scream, 1937; technical innovator. Tamayo, Rufino. 1899Expressionist; Animals. CHILE. Matta (Echaurren). 1912Surrealist; Paris school; jewel-like tone. CUBA. Lam, Wilfredo. 1902Abstract expressionist; distortion; symbolism. Asia JAPAN. Onchi, Koshiro. outstanding abstract print-maker; influenced by Kandinsky, Muncli; poet; subtle, ■witty, daring; magnificent tcclinique. Sekino, Jun ichiro. print-maker, illustrator, designer; excellent portraits. Shinagawa, Takumi. Abstract prints, mobiles; outstanding use of color. Munakata, Shiko. Influenced by ancient Buddhist prints; strong work.





architecture UNITED STATES. Wrighi, Frank Lloyd. Continued outstanding work; magnificent private homes; Laboratory, Johnson Wax Company, 1949; wayfarers’ Chapel, 1951. Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, b. Germany. Buildings distinguished by functional composition; use of great planes of glass; first all-glass skyscraper. Breuer, Marcel, b. Hungary. Worked with Gropius at Bauhaus, Germany; famed inventor metal-tufae furniture; with Bernard Zehrfuss, France, PierLuigi Nervi, Italy, designed UNESCO building, Paris. Saarinen, Eliel. b. Finland. To U.S.A. 1923; Berkshire Music Center; teacher, Cranbrook Academy. Others. Edward Stone, Alvar Aalto, Wallace Harrison^ Charles Eames, Eero Saarinen, Richard Neutra, etc. SCULPTURE ENGLAND. Moore, Henry. Considered most important sculptor of period; monumental works, abstract figures of nude; family groups; architectural sculpture; drawings. Others. Epstein, Hepworth, Butler. FRANCE. Arp, Hans. b. Strasbourg. Abstract rounded forms; reliefs (wood forms); painter. Dadaist group. Pevsner, Antoine and Gabo, Naum. Brothers; b. Russia. originators of constructivist sculpture; influential. Lipshitz, Jacques, b. Litliuania. Monumental abstract expressionist. Giacometti, Alberto. 1901b. Switzerland. Elongated, ‘stick-like fig, ures; abstract symbolic structures. Maillol, Aristide. 1861-1944. Ncoclassicist; large, graceful nudes. ITALY. Marini, Marino. Ilxpressionist. SPAIN. Gonzales, Julio, d. 19UOutstanding use of metals; wroughtiron; abstrart expressionism: mflaenced Picasso. YUGOSLAVIA. Mesfrovic, Ivon1883Monumental expressionhmunited STATES. Colder, Alexonwr. Creator of ‘mobiles,’ stabiles’; wire. twisted metal: illustrator. Others. Archipenko, Noguchi, rach, De Rivera, Lipton, LippoW. Roszak, Lassaw’, etc.





Ireland, Abbey Players and Sean O Casey (1884), leading dramatist; famous for Juno and the Paycock, 1924; Plough and the Stars, 1926, Within the Gates, 1926, The End of the Beginning, 1939. United States O Neill, Eugene. 1888-1953, outstanding American dramatist; famed for Strange Interlude, 1927, Mourning Becomes Electro, 1931, Emperor Jones, 1920, Desire Under the Elms, 1924, The Iceman Cometh, 1946; Nobel Prize, 1936. Others. Shenvood, Wilder, Hellman, Anderson, Saroyan, Williams, Miller, Inge, Connelly, Behrman, Rice, Odets, etc. Creative artists ivho have worked for the motion picture industry, include Chaplin, DeMille, Eisenstein, Cocteau, Flaherty, Lorentz, Von Stroheim, Clair, Da Sica, Rossellini, and many others. DANCE At the turn of the century the dancer freed liimself from the restrictions of the past and developed new forms, new interpretations, great ballet groups, and internationally famous solo performances. Influenced by the Greeks, and in a ‘back to nature’ movement, Isadora Duncan introduced a new freedom of expression into the dance; Ruth St. Denis, first Anieric,an dancer to appear in a full-length performance, created Radha, 1906. The great European innovators included (among many others): Fokine: Mary Wigman, Rudolf von Laban (cofounders, modern dance in Europe), Harald Kreutzberg, Germany; Tudor, Dolin, Fonteyn, Sadler’s Wells, England; Les Ballets de Paris, France; Ulanova, Bolshoi Theater Ballet, Moiseyev Dance Group, Russia: Josd Limon, Jos6 Greco, La Argentina, Spain, Latin-America; Uday Shankar, Ram Gopal, India; Nimura, Tacibana, Azuma Kabuki Dancers, Japan; Asadata Dafora, Africa; Destind, Haiti, ballanchine, De Mille, ballet choreographers, Martha Graham, outstanding creator of modem dance United S tates.