variations: Dictionary Information

Variation n. 1 varying. 2 departure from the normal kind, amount, a standard, etc. (prices are subject to variation). 3 extent of this. 4 variant thing. 5 mus. Theme in a changed or elaborated form.

variations: Geographic Locations

variations: Historical Excerpts

Classic Age. Age of Pericles or Golden Age of Athens, 480-404. Parthenon. Most famous example of Greek ardiitecture; built under Pericles to honor Athena, on Acropolis in Athens; architects, Ictinus and Callicrates; white marble, two-room cella (for cult statue and treasury) enclosed by rows of Doric columns (colonnade) ; triumph of beauty, harmony, -sj’mmetry. Erechfheum. Ionic temple; enshrined three hallowed places; though irregularly planned, probably by Mnesicles, remarkable over-all harmony of concept, design, ornamentation; Porch of Maidens striking for use of six magnificent female figures (caryatids) as columns; folds of gowns resemble column fluting; delicacy, cliarm. Other outstanding examples of Greek architecture include the Temple of Nike Apteros, Athens, gem of miniature proportions, delicate details; Temple of Apollo at Bassae, designed by Ictinus, early example of corintliian capital, variation of Ionic using acanthus leaf motif; Greek theater, unique in ancient architecture, spectacular. Phidias. Sculptor; designed figures for P.irthenon, remarkable in composition, eacli suited to assigned space; sculpture consisted of 92 high-relief panels in tlie Doric frieze; 50 freestanding figures in two pediments; continuous frieze on four outer cella ^^•aIls; famed great gold, ivory statue, Athena. Myron. Sculptor; famous Discobolus (discus-thro^ver) expressed individualism balanced by classic impersonality and abstract beauty. Polyclitui. Sculptor; eslablislicd rules of proportion in treatment of human body; captured motion in poise of Doryphorus, (spear-bearer), \younded Amazon, and other works. apollodorui (the riiadow painter) and Polygnofus, renowed painters of 5th century-, Pergamon and Athens; Pol)-gnotu5 worked out prindple of perspective, able to create illusion of three dimensions, depth.





Global perspectives The 13th ccnturjwas the century of die Mongol conquests. As die map indicates, Genghis Khan and his descendants (Conquered an empire that reached from Korea to Poland, from Siberia to die Himalayas and the Persian Gulf. Its total area of nearly 10 million square miles equaled one-sixth of the land surface of die globe. Ses cral interesting points arc worth consideration ill a study of the Mongol expansion. 1. The greatest desert region of die globe stretches across central Asia to die Black Sea and die Persian Gulf, and continues dirough the Arabian Peninsula and iNorth Africa. Throughout recorded history’ periodic waves of nomad peoples from these -semi-arid wastes have assailed die greener settled regions tliat border them. The Chinese built the Great Wall to check diem. The ridi cities of the Fertile Crescent sufTcfed repeated assaults by the desert tribes of Arabia (Islamic expansion ladiaied from Mecca). The coastal cities of North Africa declined in the llth century under die attacks of Sa. haran nomads. 2. Climatic variations, marked by cycles of heavier rainfall, brought a rapid increase of animal life in the semiarid regions, and a consequent rise in the human population. It has been suggested that this surplus population stimulated the pressure behind the nomad was cs. TJie theory, though provocative, lakes too little account of correlated factors. For instance, divisions in Sung China and in the Ishmiic domains facilitated die Mongol advance in die, I3ih century S. The Mongols were hardy warriois, armed and trained from youth to hunt. bygrc.it encircling moveniems and then slaughter the surrounded quarry. Their swiftness and mobility in war, whicli paralyzed dieir opponents, depended on a simil.ir strategy Tlicir merciless massacres of peoples that opposctl them spread terror and brought submission. iTiey alio proved, ingenious and ad.ip; live, riiey learned lo use siege madiin; cry against cities, and as tbeir victories inuhiplietl, hon-rcsistance appeared to offer the only hope of sums al.. 1. liie Mongol practice of sending Koiiiing. parties ahead, locating the enemy forced and then consrrging bn dtcrs iuddenly, suited die open terrain in which they were accustomed lo oper ate, rhitk fomts impeded dseir movememt and.denied ditir, horses grass. ^ In beerthttp Asia iheir wnqtiesw halted ■,• at dm of -die great ’ conifarous





SPAIN. Vives, Juan Luis. Humanist philosopher; opposed scholasticism; logician; one of first to emphasize induction as method of philosophy and psychology. Gurcllasco de la Vega. Lyric poet; with Boscan, adapted Spanish poetry to variations on 11-syllable line characteristic of Italian poetry; sonnets, odes, pastorals, and elegies; called ‘Spanish Petrarch.’ Boscdn Almogdver, Juan. Poet; credited with founding Italian school of poetry in Spain; with Garcilasco, introduced hendecasyllabics, 1526. Oviedo y Valdes, Gonzalo. 14781557. Chronicler of New World; Historia General y Natural de las Indias occidentales, in 21 volumes, 1535. PORTUGAL. Ferreira, Antonio. Founder of Portuguese classicism imitating Italian and Latin verse forms. ENGLAND. More, Sir Thomas. Humanist; famed author of Utopia, in Latin, 1516; classic picture of ideal state; refused to subscribe to Act of Supremacy, beheaded. Wyatt, Sir Thomas. Poet; wrote first sonnets in English; modeled chiefly after Petrarch; introduced love poetry that had sincere, personal quality. Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of cl5l7





Western Europe ENGLAND. Spenser, Edmund. ‘The poet’s poet.’ Known best for The shepherd’s Calendar, pastorals, 1579, and The Faerie Queene, 1589, allegories; richness and beauty of imagination; invented Spenserian stanza. shakespeare, William. Poet and dramatist; famed sonnets probably written 1593-96; shakespearian sonnet (named for him, but introduced by Surrey) elizabethan variation of the Italian; three quatrains with alternate rhymes and concluding couplet. Sidney, Sir Philip. elizabethan lyric poet and sonneteer; Aslrophel and Stella, first real English sonnet sequence, tale of love; tvrote first scholarly literary criticism in English. Gascoigne, George. Important pioneer in many fields of English literature; essay on prosody; first prose comedy, first Greek tragedy in English; first original nondramatic blank verse in English, satire. The Steele Glas, 1576. John Lyly created euphuism and wrote early example of novel form; John Foxe wrote Book of Martyrs. ITALY. Bruno, Giordano. Philosopher; cosmic theory of universe; champion of Copernicus; opposed aristotelian logic; monadist; influenced Spinoza, Hegel, Leibniz; burned for heresy. Tasso, Torquato. Epic poet; masterpiece, Jerusalem Delivered, 1575r celebrated first crusade, in 20 cantos. Cellini, Benvenuto. 1500-71. Sculptor; frank, entertaining autobiography. Cynthius, Cinzio (Giraldi) 1504-73. Tales, Gli hecatommithi, 1565, used as source material by Shakespeare. Scaliger, Julius. 1484-1558. Set andards of neoclassicism with Latin rammar; criticized Cicero, extolled /ergil.





Central Europe NETHERLANDS. Boerhaave, Hermann. Physician, chemist;, leading practitioner, teacher; introduced clinical teadiing: instituiiones medicae (Practice or Teaching of Medicine), 1708, introduced term ‘physiology’ in modem sensed established it as an academic discipline in medical curriculum; held digestion was more in nature of solution than fermentation; Elementa chemiae (Elements of Chemistry), 1732, founded organic chemistry. switzerland, Euler, Leonhard. swiss-german mathematician; trigonometry given first time in modern, notation; formulated idea of function, fundamental in pure and applied modern mathematics; first systematic treatment of calculus of variations, 1744; only physicist of 18th century to advance undulatory theory; hydrodynamics; highly influential., Bernoulli, Daniel. Swiss founder of mathematical physics; recognized im, portance of principle of conservation of force anticipated in part by Huygens; solved equation known as bernoulli’s equation; hydrodyiiamica, 1738, advanced kinetic theory of gases and. fluids. ^ Bernoulli, Jacques. Mathematician; improved differential calculus; solved isoperimetrical problem; discovered properties of logarithmic spiral; work with brother, Jean. Fahrenheit, Gabriel. Physicist, improved thermometer by substituting mercury for alcohol; introduced two fixed points in scale, zero being temperature of mixture of ice and salt; scale. WEDEN. Swedenborg, Emanuel. paleontologist; modem theory of molecular magnetics; crystallography; mercu^ air pump; published first bwedish scientific journal, Daedalus nyperboreusj 1716. Astronomer; incentigrade thermomeadopted; directed observa measurements in polar





Western Europe FRANCE. Lavoisier, Antoine. Founder o£ modem cliemistry; law of conservation of matter (mass); theor)’ of combustion ended pitlogiston theory; Traitd eUmcnlaire de chimie (Elements of Chemistry) 1789, outstanding work, first modern textbook on cliemistry: with others, developed new chemical nomenclature. Lagrange, Joseph. Eminent theoretical mathematician; cl.assic treatise, Mdcanique analytique, 1797; created calculus of variations; systematized differential equations; methods mainly analytical. Coulomb, Charles. Physician; research on magnetism; torsion balance; invented magnetometer; unit of quantity (coulomb) of electricity; named for him. Boflfon, Georges. Naturalist; Histoire Naturelle (44 vols.) 1749-1804; tpoques dc la Nature, 1778. ITALY. Volta, Count Alessandro. Pliysicist; pioneer in electricity; great discovery, successive layers of copper and zinc in electric pile’ produce continuous electric current; volt, electrical unit, named for him. spallaniani, Lazzaro. Naturalist, biologist; known for experiments on digestion, 1782, proving gastric juice is.secreted by stomach; rejected theory of spontaneous generation. Morgagni, Giovanni. Anatomist; founder of modem pathology; important observations on pneumoni.i, meningitis, s)’philis; Seats and Causes of Disease, 1761, important contribution. Galvani, Luigi. 1737-98. Physician; experiments witii frog s leg showed contracting of muscle and nen-e at toudi of charged metal; electrical icmrs derived from his name. SWITZERLAND. Haller, Albrechf. Physiologist; autlior of outstanding work, Elementa physiologiae (Elements of pjiysiology), 1757; great achievement, establishment of doctrine of muscular irritability (contractility) of muscle u ssuc, recognized as fundamental property of living matter; racdtanics of respiration; neurology.





Central and Eastern Europe GERMANY. Humboldt, Alexander von. Naturalist; explored (with Bonpland) Central, South America, 17791804; wrote about voyages; established use of isotherms; studied increase of magnetic intensity from equator to poles; Cosmos (5 vols.), 1845-52, excellent formulation of known facts into uniform conception of nature. Gauss, Karl. mathematician, astronomer; disquisitiones arithmeticae, 1801, theory of numbers; method of solving binomial equations; geometry of cuiwed surfaces; method of least squares; gauss, unit of magnetic induction; contributed to electrodynamics; computed orbit of planetoids. Goethe, Wolfgang von. Discovered intermaxillary bone in man; interested in morphology, evolution. Seebeck, Thomas. Physicist; thermoelectricity; demonstrated use of thermoelement for measuring temperature; studied heat radiation; polariscope. Chladni, Ernst. Physicist; ‘father of modern acoustics’; method of counting number of variations corresponding with each note; vibrating plates. Bode, Johann. 1747-1826. Astronomer; known for uranographia, 1801, collection of star maps; B ode’s law, formula relative distance from planets to sun. Grotefend, George. 1775-1853. archaeologist, philologist: deciphered cuneiform inscriptions of Persia. NORWAY. Abel, Niels. Mathematician; known for proving impossibility of solving radicals; important research on elliptical functions. ESTONIA. Pander, Christian. Biologist; monograph, beautifully illustrated, on embryology of chick (crediting Wolff) 1817; first to distinguish germ-layers. SWITZERLAND. Candolle, Augustin de. Botanist; foundation of systematic botanical classification by making morpholog)’ the key. United States Robert Fulton built first commercially successful steamboat, Clermont, 1807, ^sing English engine.





Central Europe GERMANY. Beethoven, Ludwig van. Supreme composer; studied witli Haydn; influenced by his predecessors, but created so much that was new and important that his is a unique place in musical history: developed sonata, made innovations in the orchestra, freed the variation from a rigid form tv’ith his vivid imagination; virtuoso of the piano; famous works include Pathetique sonata, ‘rasoumowsky’ quartets, nine symphones, Coriolamis overture, Fidelia, opera, chamber and instrumental music. Weber, Carl Maria von. Composer, pianist; laid foundation for German romantic opera; conductor; best known for Der freischiitz, 1821, Obcron, 1826, Euryanthe, 1823; mote instrumental music, including Invitation to the Dance, 1819, nine cantatas, four piano sonatas, eight sets of variations, two piano concertos, two symphonies, over one hundred songs, masses. concertstuck in F Minor, 1821, and many other works. AUSTRIA. Schubert, Franz. Foremost composer of romantic movement in Austria; svrote over 600 songs, reaching the heights in German Lied; brilliant symphonies, diamber music, incidental music for Rosamunde, cliurch music, piano sonatas; lived in poverty, died young.





ITALY. Bellini, Vincenzo. Romantic composer of opera; known for opera in the grand manner with masterly melodic and dramatic effects; La Sonnambula (The sleepwalker), 1831, Norma, 1831, I Puritani (The Puritans), 1835; died very young. Donizetti, Gaetano. Composer of opera; influenced by Rossini; wrote great comic operas; most famous tvorks •included Lucia di Lammermoor, 1835, based on Scott’s novel; light opera. The Daughter of the Regiment, Paris, 1840; composed 65 operas, songs, cantatas, sacred works, and string quartets; very popular. Paganini, Niccolo. Notable violin virtuoso whose artistry has become a legend; use of harmonics extended range of instrument; able to play pizzicato and bow passages simultaneously; wrote 24 caprices for solo violin; subsequently transcribed for piano by Schumann and Liszt; Bralims and rachmaninoff wrote variations on one of them. Centrol ond Eastern Europe GERMANY. Schumann, Robert. outstanding romantic composer of nearly 150 songs to poems by Heine, Coethe, and otliers; symphonies, three string quartets, 1842, famed for quintet in E Flat Major (Opus 44), choral works, opera, music for piano; championed younger composers, including Brahms and Chopin; called most literary composer. mendelssohn, Felix. Notable romantic composer; intellectual approach in unsuccessful attempt to reconcile classical construction with romantic content; known for Violin Concerto in E Minor, Hebrides Overture, Songs Without Words, music for piano, chamber music; important in reawakening interest in Bach with performance of St. Matthew Passion, 1829. RUSSIA. Glinka, Michael. Composer; founder of the nationalist sdiool and Russian opera; famed operas, A Life for the Tsar, 1836, Russian and Ludmilla, 1842, based on native folk music; called ‘prophet-patri





United States Edison, Thomas Alva. Famous inventor; transmitter and receiver for automatic telegraph, phonograph: first commercially practical incandescent lamp; first central electric-light power plant in world; genius in practical application of scientific principles, but not abstract or theoretical scientist. Gibbs, Josiah Willard. Major contributor to field of thermodynamics: equations responsible for important technical applications of modern physical chemistry to industrial use; famous for mathematical statement ot chemical equilibrium, which he called phase rule. Hall, Edwin. Physicist; thermodynamics; Hall effect, deflection of lines of fiow of electric current passing through metal conductor when placed in magnetic field, 1879; thermoelectric action and thermal conduction. Langley, Samuel. Invented bolometer, extremely sensitive instrument for recording variations in heat radiation; measured distribution of heat in solar and lunar spectra; mechanics of flight and experiments with heavierthan-air Hying machines; pioneer m aviation. Miehelson, Albert. Physicist; velocity of light; experimented on interference of light waves (optical interference); with Morley, investigated ether drift, deduced absolute motion of earth not measurable; contributed to einstein’s theory of relativity. Ferrel, William. Meteorologist; Ferrel’s law: moving bodies surface are deflected to right in NorAern Hemisphere and left in Southern. technology Otto, principle of internal combustion engine. 1876; Tesla, rotating magnetic field, 1877: Siemens, electric street car. 1879; Carbutt, celluloid film for photography, 1883; Maxim gun, 1883; mergenthaler, linotype 1885: first naval submarine; Daiinler. first used gasoline in if ‘^^al combustion engines, primarily boats. 18 also first successful automobile, 1887n

airshio. 1898.